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Large true cat native to Africa and Asia

Leopard

Temporal range: Early Pleistocene to recent[2]

African leopard male (cropped).jpg
Male African leopard in Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya

Conservation status


Vulnerable (IUCN iii.1)[3]

CITES Appendix I (CITES)[three]

Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Suborder: Feliformia
Family: Felidae
Subfamily: Pantherinae
Genus: Panthera
Species:

P. pardus[1]

Binomial name
Panthera pardus[1]

(Linnaeus, 1758)
Subspecies

See text

Leopard distribution.jpg
Nowadays and historical distribution of the leopard[3]

The leopard (Panthera pardus) is i of the five extant species in the genus Panthera, a member of the cat family unit, Felidae.[4] It occurs in a wide range in sub-Saharan Africa, in some parts of Western and Central Asia, Southern Russian federation, and on the Indian subcontinent to Southeast and East Asia. Information technology is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List considering leopard populations are threatened past habitat loss and fragmentation, and are declining in large parts of the global range. The leopard is considered locally extinct in Hong Kong, Singapore, Republic of korea, Jordan, Morocco, Togo, the United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Lebanese republic, Islamic republic of mauritania, State of kuwait, Syrian arab republic, Libya, Tunisia and most likely in Northward Korea, Gambia, Laos, Lesotho, Tajikistan, Vietnam and Israel.[3] Contemporary records advise that the leopard occurs in only 25% of its historical global range.[five] [6]

Compared to other wild cats, the leopard has relatively short legs and a long body with a large skull. Its fur is marked with rosettes. Information technology is similar in appearance to the jaguar (Panthera onca), just has a smaller, lighter physique, and its rosettes are mostly smaller, more densely packed and without fundamental spots. Both leopards and jaguars that are melanistic are known as blackness panthers. The leopard is distinguished by its well-camouflaged fur, opportunistic hunting behaviour, broad diet, forcefulness, and its power to adapt to a variety of habitats ranging from rainforest to steppe, including arid and montane areas. It can run at speeds of up to 58 km/h (36 mph).[7] The primeval known leopard fossils excavated in Europe are estimated 600,000 years quondam, dating to the late Early Pleistocene.[two] Leopard fossils were also found in Japan[8] and Sumatra.[nine]

Etymology

The English language name 'leopard' comes from Old French: leupart or Centre French: liepart, that derives from Latin: leopardus and Ancient Greek: λέοπάρδος (leopardos). Leopardos could be a compound of λέων (leōn), meaning lion, and πάρδος (pardos), meaning spotted.[10] [11] [12] The word λέοπάρδος originally referred to a chetah (Acinonyx jubatus).[13]

'Panther' is some other common proper name, derived from Latin: panther and Ancient Greek: πάνθηρ (pánthēr);[10] The generic proper noun Panthera originates in Latin: panthera, which refers to a hunting net for catching wild beasts that were used by the Romans in combats.[14] The phonetically similar Sanskrit: पाण्डर (pând-ara) means stake yellow, whitish or white.[xv] The specific proper name pardus refers to a male panther.[xvi] The discussion pardus is thought to originate from Ancient Greek: παρδάλωτός (pardalotόs) meaning spotted like a leopard.[17]

Characteristics

Rosettes of a leopard

Leopard in South Africa

The leopard's fur is more often than not soft and thick, notably softer on the belly than on the dorsum.[eighteen] Its skin colour varies betwixt individuals from pale yellowish to dark golden with dark spots grouped in rosettes. Its belly is whitish and its ringed tail is shorter than its body. Its pupils are round.[19] Leopards living in barren regions are pale cream, yellow to ochraceous and rufous in colour; those living in forests and mountains are much darker and deep golden. Spots fade toward the white underbelly and the insides and lower parts of the legs.[twenty] Rosettes are circular in East African leopard populations, and tend to be squarish in Southern African and larger in Asian leopard populations. The fur tends to exist grayish in colder climates, and dark golden in rain forest habitats.[vii] The pattern of the rosettes is unique in each individual.[21] [22] This pattern is thought to be an adaptation to dense vegetation with patchy shadows, where it serves equally camouflage.[23]

Its white-tipped tail is most 60–100 cm (23.6–39.iv in) long, white underneath and with spots that course incomplete bands toward the tail's end.[24] The guard hairs protecting the basal hairs are short, 3–four mm (0.i–0.two in) in confront and head, and increment in length toward the flanks and the belly to almost 25–30 mm (1.0–1.2 in). Juveniles have woolly fur, and announced to be dark-coloured due to the densely arranged spots.[21] [25] Its fur tends to abound longer in colder climates.[26] The leopard's rosettes differ from those of the jaguar (Panthera onca), which are darker and with smaller spots inside.[19]

The leopard has a diploid chromosome number of 38.[27] The chromosomes include four acrocentric, five metacentric, vii submetacentric and two telocentric pairs.[28]

Size and weight

The leopard is sexually dimorphic with males larger and heavier than females.[24] It is muscular, with relatively short limbs and a wide caput. Males stand up 60–70 cm (23.6–27.6 in) at the shoulder, while females are 57–64 cm (22.four–25.two in) tall. The head-and-body length ranges between 90 and 196 cm (2 ft 11.4 in and 6 ft five.two in) with a 66 to 102 cm (two ft 2.0 in to 3 ft 4.2 in) long tail. Sizes vary geographically.[26] Males counterbalance 37–90 kg (81.6–198.4 lb), and females 28–threescore kg (61.7–132.3 lb).[25] [29] Some leopards in North Africa allegedly were as large as Barbary lions (Panthera leo leo). In 1913, an Algerian newspaper reported a leopard killed that allegedly measured about 275 cm (9 ft 0 in) in total length.[30] The maximum weight of a wild leopard in Southern Africa was about 96 kg (212 lb). It measured 262 cm (8 ft seven.1 in).[31] An Indian leopard killed in Himachal Pradesh in 2016 measured 261 cm (8 ft 6.eight in) with an estimated weight of 78.5 kg (173.1 lb); it was peradventure the largest known wild leopard in India.[32] [33]

The largest skull of a leopard was recorded in India in 1920 and measured 28 cm (11.0 in) in basal length, 20 cm (7.9 in) in breadth, and weighed 1,000 g (two lb 4 oz). The skull of an African leopard measured 285.viii mm (11.25 in) in basal length, and 181.0 mm (7.125 in) in breadth, and weighed 790 g (one lb 12 oz).[34]

Variant colouration

A melanistic leopard or black panther

Melanistic leopards are also chosen black panthers. Melanism in leopards is acquired past a recessive allele and inherited equally a recessive trait.[35] Interbreeding in melanistic leopards produces a significantly smaller litter size than is produced by normal pairings.[36] The blackness leopard is mutual foremost in tropical and subtropical moist forests like the equatorial rainforest of the Malay Peninsula and the tropical rainforest on the slopes of some African mountains such every bit Mount Kenya.[37] Between January 1996 and March 2009, leopards were photographed at 16 sites in the Malay Peninsula in a sampling endeavor of more than i,000 photographic camera trap nights. Of the 445 photographs of melanistic leopards, 410 were taken in study sites south of the Kra Isthmus, where the non-melanistic morph was never photographed. These information indicate the about-fixation of the dark allele in the region. The expected time for the fixation of this recessive allele due to genetic migrate alone ranged from most 1,100 years to most 100,000 years.[38] Pseudomelanistic leopards take too been reported.[39]

In India, 9 pale and white leopards were reported between 1905 and 1967.[xl] Leopards exhibiting erythrism were recorded between 1990 and 2015 in Due south Africa'southward Madikwe Game Reserve and in Mpumalanga. The cause of this morph known as a "strawberry leopard" or "pinkish panther" is not well understood.[41]

Taxonomy

Map showing judge distribution of leopard subspecies

Felis pardus was the scientific proper noun proposed by Carl Linnaeus in 1758.[42] The generic name Panthera was first used by Lorenz Oken in 1816, who included all the known spotted cats into this group.[43] Oken's classification was not widely accustomed, and Felis or Leopardus was used as the generic name until the early 20th century.[44]

The leopard was designated as the blazon species of Panthera by Joel Asaph Allen in 1902.[45] In 1917, Reginald Innes Pocock also subordinated the tiger (P. tigris), lion (P. leo), and jaguar (P. onca) to Panthera.[46] [47]

Subspecies

Following Linnaeus' beginning description, 27 leopard subspecies were proposed past naturalists between 1794 and 1956. Since 1996, just eight subspecies have been considered valid on the footing of mitochondrial analysis.[48] Later analysis revealed a ninth valid subspecies, the Arabian leopard.[49]

In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group recognized the post-obit eight subspecies as valid taxa:[iv]

Subspecies Distribution Epitome
African leopard (P. p. pardus) (Linnaeus, 1758) [one] It is the virtually widespread leopard subspecies and is native to most of Sub-Saharan Africa.[3] Leopard (Panthera pardus).jpg
Indian leopard (P. p. fusca) (Meyer, 1794) [50] It is native to the Indian subcontinent, Myanmar and southern Tibet.[three] [iv] [51] Nagarhole Kabini Karnataka India, Leopard September 2013.jpg
Javan leopard (P. p. melas) (Cuvier, 1809) [52] It is native to Java in Indonesia and is considered Critically Endangered.[3] Levhart jávský v Zoo Praha 001.jpg
Arabian leopard (P. p. nimr) (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1830) [53] It is native to the Arabian Peninsula, merely considered locally extinct in the Sinai Peninsula. It is the smallest leopard subspecies.[54] PikiWiki Israel 14861 judean desert leopard cropped.JPG
P. p. tulliana (Valenciennes, 1856) [55] It is native to eastern Turkey, the Caucasus, southern Russia, the Iranian Plateau and the Hindu Kush. It is considered Endangered.[3]

The Balochistan leopard population perhaps evolved in the s of Islamic republic of iran, Afghanistan and Islamic republic of pakistan, beingness separated from the northern population by the Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-due east Lut deserts.[56]

Persian leopard 1.jpg
Amur leopard (P. p. orientalis) (Schlegel, 1857) [57] [58] It is native to the Russian Far East and northern Mainland china, but is locally extinct in the Korean peninsula.[three] AmurLeopard.jpg
Indochinese leopard (P. p. delacouri) Pocock, 1930 [59] It is native to mainland Southeast Asia and southern China.[3] Indochinese leopard.jpg
Sri Lankan leopard (P. p. kotiya) Deraniyagala, 1956 [60] It is native to Sri Lanka.[3] Slleo1.jpg

Results of an analysis of molecular variance and pairwise fixation index of 182 African leopard museum specimens showed that some African leopards exhibit higher genetic differences than Asian leopard subspecies.[61]

Evolution

Ii cladograms proposed for Panthera. The upper cladogram is based on the 2006[62] and 2009[63] studies, while the lower is based on the 2010[64] and 2011[65] studies.

Results of phylogenetic studies based on nDNA and mtDNA analysis showed that the last common antecedent of the Panthera and Neofelis genera is idea to accept lived well-nigh 6.37 million years ago. Neofelis diverged about eight.66 1000000 years ago from the Panthera lineage. The tiger diverged nigh 6.55 1000000 years ago, followed by the snow leopard about iv.63 million years ago and the leopard about four.35 meg years agone. The leopard is a sister taxon to a clade within Panthera, consisting of the lion and the jaguar.[62] [63]

Results of a phylogenetic assay of chemical secretions amongst cats indicated that the leopard is closely related to the lion.[66] The geographic origin of the Panthera is most likely northern Central Asia. The leopard-lion clade was distributed in the Asian and African Palearctic since at least the early Pliocene.[67] The leopard-lion clade diverged 3.ane–1.95 million years ago.[64] [65] Additionally, a 2016 study revealed that the mitochondrial genomes of the leopard, lion and snow leopard are more than similar to each other than their nuclear genomes, indicating that their ancestors hybridized with the snow leopard at some indicate in their development.[68]

Fossils of leopard ancestors were excavated in East Africa and South Asia, dating back to the Pleistocene between 2 and 3.five 1000000 years ago. The modern leopard is suggested to accept evolved in Africa about 0.five to 0.8 million years agone and to have radiated across Asia near 0.2 and 0.three one thousand thousand years ago.[49] Fossil cat teeth nerveless in Sumatra's Padang Highlands were assigned to the leopard. It has since been hypothesized that it became extirpated on the island due to the Toba eruption nigh 75,000 years ago,[69] and due to competition with the Sunda clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi) and the dhole (Cuon alpinus).[9]

In Europe, the leopard occurred at least since the Pleistocene. Leopard-like fossil basic and teeth mayhap dating to the Pliocene were excavated in Perrier in France, northeast of London, and in Valdarno, Italy. Until 1940, like fossils dating back to the Pleistocene were excavated mostly in loess and caves at 40 sites in Europe, including Furninha Cave near Lisbon, Genista Caves in Gibraltar, and Santander Province in northern Espana to several sites across France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, Germany, in the north upwards to Derby in England, in the east to Přerov in the Czech Republic and the Baranya in southern Republic of hungary,[lxx] Leopard fossils dating to the Late Pleistocene were plant in Biśnik Cave in southward-cardinal Poland.[71] The oldest known leopard fossils excavated in Europe are nigh 600,000 years onetime and were establish in the Grotte du Vallonnet in France and near Mauer in Deutschland.[2] 4 European Pleistocene leopard subspecies were proposed. P. p. begoueni from the beginning of the Early Pleistocene was replaced almost 0.6 million years ago past P. p. sickenbergi, which in plow was replaced past P. p. antiqua around 0.3 million years ago. The most recent, P. p. spelaea, appeared at the beginning of the Tardily Pleistocene and survived until about 24,000 years ago in several parts of Europe.[72] Leopard fossils dating to the Pleistocene were besides excavated in the Japanese archipelago.[8]

Hybrids

In 1953, a male leopard and a lioness were crossbred in Hanshin Park in Nishinomiya, Japan. Their offspring known every bit a leopon was born in 1959 and 1961, all cubs were spotted and bigger than a juvenile leopard. Attempts to mate a leopon with a tigress were unsuccessful.[73]

Distribution and habitat

Leopard in a tree in Bharat

The leopard has the largest distribution of all wild cats, occurring widely in Africa, the Caucasus and Asia, although populations are fragmented and declining. It is considered to exist extirpated in North Africa.[iii] It inhabits foremost savanna and rainforest, and areas where grasslands, woodlands, and riverine forests remain largely undisturbed.[seven] In sub-Saharan Africa, it is all the same numerous and surviving in marginal habitats where other big cats accept disappeared. In that location is considerable potential for homo-leopard conflict due to leopards preying on livestock.[75]

Leopard populations on the Arabian Peninsula are small and fragmented.[76] [77] [78] In southeastern Arab republic of egypt, a leopard killed in 2017 was the first record in this area in 65 years.[79] In western and central Asia, it avoids deserts, areas with long snow encompass and proximity to urban centres.[80]

In the Indian subcontinent, the leopard is still relatively abundant, with greater numbers than those of other Panthera species.[3] As of 2020, the leopard population within forested habitats in Bharat'due south tiger range landscapes was estimated at 12,172 to xiii,535 individuals. Surveyed landscapes included elevations below two,600 grand (8,500 ft) in the Shivalik Hills and Gangetic plains, Key Bharat and Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats, the Brahmaputra River bowl and hills in Northeast India.[81] Some leopard populations in the state live quite shut to man settlements and even in semi-developed areas. Although adjustable to human disturbances, leopards crave good for you prey populations and appropriate vegetative cover for hunting for prolonged survival and thus rarely linger in heavily developed areas. Due to the leopard's stealth, people frequently remain unaware that it lives in nearby areas.[82]

In Nepal'southward Kanchenjunga Conservation Expanse, a melanistic leopard was photographed at an tiptop of 4,300 one thousand (14,100 ft) past a camera trap in May 2012.[83] In Sri Lanka, leopards were recorded in Yala National Park and in unprotected forest patches, tea estates, grasslands, home gardens, pine and eucalyptus plantations.[84] [85] In Myanmar, leopards were recorded for the first time by camera traps in the hill forests of Myanmar's Karen Country.[86] The Northern Tenasserim Forest Circuitous in southern Myanmar is considered a leopard stronghold. In Thailand, leopards are present in the Western Forest Complex, Kaeng Krachan-Kui Buri, Khlong Saeng-Khao Sok protected expanse complexes and in Hala Bala Wild animals Sanctuary bordering Malaysia. In Peninsular Malaysia, leopards are nowadays in Belum-Temengor, Taman Negara and Endau-Rompin National Parks.[87] In Laos, leopards were recorded in Nam Et-Phou Louey National Biodiversity Conservation Expanse and Nam Kan National Protected Area.[88] [89] In Cambodia, leopards inhabit deciduous dipterocarp wood in Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary and Mondulkiri Protected Forest.[90] [91] In southern China, leopards were recorded just in the Qinling Mountains during surveys in 11 nature reserves betwixt 2002 and 2009.[92]

In Java, leopards inhabit dumbo tropical rainforests and dry out deciduous forests at elevations from bounding main level to 2,540 g (8,330 ft). Exterior protected areas, leopards were recorded in mixed agronomical land, secondary forest and production woods betwixt 2008 and 2014.[93]

In the Russian Far East, information technology inhabits temperate coniferous forests where wintertime temperatures accomplish a low of −25 °C (−13 °F).[49]

Behaviour and ecology

A female leopard showing white spots on the dorsum of the ears

A female person leopard showing white spots on the tail

The leopard is a solitary and territorial fauna. Adults associate only in the mating season. Females go on to interact with their offspring even after weaning and accept been observed sharing kills with their offspring when they tin not obtain any casualty. They produce a number of vocalizations, including growls, snarls, meows, and purrs.[25] The roaring sequence in leopards consists mainly of grunts,[94] likewise chosen "sawing", as it resembles the sound of sawing wood. Cubs call their mother with a urr-urr sound.[25]

The whitish spots on the back of its ears are idea to play a office in communication.[95] It has been hypothesized that the white tips of their tails may part every bit a 'follow-me' betoken in intraspecific communication. However, no significant clan were institute between a conspicuous color of tail patches and behavioural variables in carnivores.[96] [97]

A leopard climbing downwards a tree

Leopards are active mainly from dusk till dawn and rest for most of the 24-hour interval and for some hours at dark in thickets, amidst rocks or over tree branches. Leopards have been observed walking 1–25 km (0.62–15.53 mi) across their range at nighttime; they may even wander up to 75 km (47 mi) if disturbed.[25] [29] In some regions, they are nocturnal.[98] [99] In western African forests, they have been observed to exist largely diurnal and hunting during twilight, when their prey animals are active; activity patterns vary between seasons.[100]

Video of a leopard in the wild

Leopards can climb trees very skillfully, often rest on tree branches and descend from trees headfirst.[vii] They tin can run at over 58 km/h (36 mph), jump over 6 m (20 ft) horizontally, and jump up to 3 m (ix.8 ft) vertically.[94]

In Kruger National Park, most leopards tend to keep one km (0.62 mi) apart.[101] Males interact with their partners and cubs at times, and exceptionally this can extend beyond to ii generations.[102] [103] Aggressive encounters are rare, typically express to defending territories from intruders.[26] In a South African reserve, a male was wounded in a male–male person territorial boxing over a carcass.[98]

Males occupy dwelling house ranges that oftentimes overlap with a few smaller female domicile ranges, probably as a strategy to enhance access to females. In the Ivory Coast, the dwelling range of a female was completely enclosed within a male's.[104] Females live with their cubs in dwelling ranges that overlap extensively, probably due to the association between mothers and their offspring. There may be a few other fluctuating dwelling ranges belonging to immature individuals. Information technology is non articulate if male home ranges overlap as much as those of females exercise. Individuals try to bulldoze away intruders of the same sex activity.[25] [29]

A study of leopards in the Namibian farmlands showed that the size of domicile ranges was non significantly affected by sex, rainfall patterns or season; the higher the prey availability in an expanse, the greater the leopard population density and the smaller the size of abode ranges, but they tend to expand if there is human being interference.[105] Sizes of home ranges vary geographically and depending on habitat and availability of prey. In the Serengeti, males have abode ranges of 33–38 km2 (13–15 sq mi) and females of fourteen–16 km2 (5.4–6.2 sq mi);[106] [107] but males in northeastern Namibia of 451 km2 (174 sq mi) and females of 188 km2 (73 sq mi).[108] They are even larger in arid and montane areas.[26] In Nepal'south Bardia National Park, male domicile ranges of 48 kmtwo (19 sq mi) and female ones of five–7 kmtwo (one.ix–2.7 sq mi) are smaller than those generally observed in Africa.[109]

Hunting and diet

Stalking

Caching the kill in a tree

The leopard is a carnivore that prefers medium-sized casualty with a torso mass ranging from 10–forty kg (22–88 lb). Prey species in this weight range tend to occur in dumbo habitat and to course small herds. Species that prefer open areas and accept well-adult anti-predator strategies are less preferred. More than 100 prey species have been recorded. The most preferred species are ungulates, such equally impala (Aepyceros melampus), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) and chital (Axis axis). Primates preyed upon include white-eyelid mangabeys (Cercocebus sp.), guenons (Cercopithecus sp.) and grey langurs (Semnopithecus sp.). Leopards also kill smaller carnivores like blackness-backed jackal (Lupulella mesomelas), bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis), genet (Genetta sp.) and cheetah.[110]

The largest prey killed past a leopard was reportedly a male eland weighing 900 kg (2,000 lb).[94] A written report in Wolong National Nature Reserve in southern People's republic of china demonstrated variation in the leopard's diet over fourth dimension; over the course of seven years, the vegetative cover receded, and leopards opportunistically shifted from primarily consuming tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus) to pursuing bamboo rats (Rhizomys sinense) and other smaller prey.[111]

The leopard depends mainly on its acute senses of hearing and vision for hunting.[112] Information technology primarily hunts at night in most areas.[25] In western African forests and Tsavo National Park, they have also been observed hunting by day.[113] They usually hunt on the basis. In the Serengeti, they have been observed to deadfall casualty by jumping down on it from trees.[114]

The animal stalks its prey and tries to arroyo as closely every bit possible, typically within v g (16 ft) of the target, and, finally, pounces on information technology and kills it past suffocation. It kills small prey with a seize with teeth to the back of the cervix, but holds larger animals by the throat and strangles them.[25] It caches kills up to 2 km (ane.two mi) apart.[102] Information technology is able to accept big prey due to its powerful jaw muscles, and is therefore strong enough to elevate carcasses heavier than itself upward into trees; an private was seen to haul a young giraffe weighing most 125 kg (276 lb) upward 5.7 thou (18 ft 8 in) into a tree.[113] It eats small prey immediately, but drags larger carcasses over several hundred metres and caches information technology safely in copse, bushes or even caves. The way it stores the kill depends on local topography and private preferences, varying from trees in Kruger National Park to bushes in the plain terrain of the Kalahari.[26] [115]

Average daily consumption rates of iii.5 kg (vii lb eleven oz) were estimated for males and of 2.viii kg (6 lb three oz) for females.[101] In the southern Kalahari Desert, leopards run across their water requirements by the bodily fluids of prey and succulent plants; they potable water every two to three days and feed infrequently on wet-rich plants such as gemsbok cucumbers (Acanthosicyos naudinianus), watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) and Kalahari sour grass (Schmidtia kalahariensis).[116]

Enemies and competitors

A lioness steals a leopard kill in Kruger National Park

In parts of its global range, the leopard is sympatric with other large predators such as the tiger (Panthera tigris), lion (P. leo), chetah, spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena), brown hyena (Parahyaena brunnea), African wild canis familiaris (Lycaon pictus), dhole (Cuon alpinus), wolf (Canis lupus) and up to 5 acquit species. Some of these species steal its kills, kill its cubs and even kill developed leopards. Leopards retreat up a tree in the face of direct aggression, and were observed when killing or preying on smaller competitors such as black-backed jackal, African civet (Civettictis civetta), caracal (Caracal caracal) and African wildcat (Felis lybica).[vii] [117] Leopards by and large seem to avert encounters with adult bears, but kill vulnerable comport cubs. In Sri Lanka, a few recorded brutal fights betwixt leopards and sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) apparently result in both animals winding up either dead or grievously injured.[118] [119]

While interspecies killing of total-grown leopards is mostly rare, given the opportunity, both tiger and king of beasts readily kill and consume both young and adult leopards.[114] [117] [120] [121] In the Kalahari Desert, leopards frequently lose kills to chocolate-brown hyenas, if the leopard is unable to move the kill into a tree. Single brown hyenas have been observed charging at and displacing male leopards from kills.[122] [123] Lions occasionally fetch leopard kills from copse.[115]

Resource partitioning occurs where leopards share their range with tigers. Leopards tend to accept smaller prey, usually less than 75 kg (165 lb), where tigers are present.[seven] In areas where leopard and tiger are sympatric, coexistence is reportedly not the general dominion, with leopards being few where tigers are numerous.[120] Tigers appear to inhabit the deep parts of a forest while leopards are pushed closer to the fringes.[124] In tropical forests, leopards practise non always avoid the larger cats by hunting at different times. With relatively abundant prey and differences in the size of casualty selected, tigers and leopards seem to successfully coexist without competitive exclusion or interspecies authorization hierarchies that may be more common to the leopard's co-existence with the lion in savanna habitats.[125]

A female leopard in estrus fights with a male attempting to mate with her

Leopard cubs in tree

Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) prey on leopards occasionally. One large adult leopard was grabbed and consumed by a large crocodile while attempting to hunt along a bank in Kruger National Park.[101] [102] Mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris) reportedly killed an adult leopard in Rajasthan.[126] An adult leopard was recovered from the tummy of a v.5 m (18 ft 1 in) Burmese python (Python bivittatus).[127] In Serengeti National Park, troops of xxx–twoscore olive baboons (Papio anubis) were observed while mobbing and attacking a female leopard and her cubs.[128]

Reproduction and life bicycle

In some areas, leopards mate all year round. In Manchuria and Siberia, they mate during January and February. The female person'due south estrous wheel lasts about 46 days, and she usually is in heat for 6–7 days.[129] The generation length of the leopard is 9.3 years.[130] Gestation lasts for 90 to 105 days.[131] Cubs are unremarkably born in a litter of 2–4 cubs.[132] Mortality of cubs is estimated at 41–l% during the get-go year.[101]

Females requite birth in a cave, crevice among boulders, hollow tree or thicket. Cubs are born with closed eyes, which open iv to nine days after nativity.[94] The fur of the young tends to be longer and thicker than that of adults. Their pelage is also more gray in colour with less defined spots. Effectually three months of age, the young begin to follow the mother on hunts. At one year of age, cubs can probably fend for themselves, but remain with the mother for 18–24 months.[133]

The average typical life bridge of a leopard is 12–17 years.[94] The oldest leopard was a captive female that died at the historic period of 24 years, two months and thirteen days.[134]

Conservation issues

The leopard is listed on CITES Appendix I, and trade is restricted to skins and trunk parts of 2,560 individuals in eleven sub-Saharan countries.[3] The leopard is primarily threatened by habitat fragmentation and conversion of woods to agriculturally used land, which lead to a declining natural prey base, man–wildlife disharmonize with livestock herders and loftier leopard mortality rates. Information technology is also threatened past trophy hunting and poaching.[iii]

Betwixt 2002 and 2012, at least iv leopards were estimated to have been poached per week in Bharat for the illegal wildlife merchandise of its skins and bones.[135] In jump 2013, 37 leopard skins were establish during a seven-calendar week long market survey in major Moroccan cities.[136] In 2014, 43 leopard skins were detected during ii surveys in Kingdom of morocco. Vendors admitted to have imported skins from sub-Saharan Africa.[137]

Surveys in the Primal African Republic's Chinko area revealed that the leopard population decreased from 97 individuals in 2012 to 50 individuals in 2017. In this catamenia, transhumant pastoralists from the border area with Sudan moved in the area with their livestock. Rangers confiscated large amounts of poisonous substance in the camps of livestock herders who were accompanied by armed merchants. They engaged in poaching large herbivores, sale of bushmeat and trading leopard skins in Am Dafok.[138]

In Coffee, the leopard is threatened by illegal hunting and merchandise. Between 2011 and 2019, trunk parts of 51 Javan leopards were seized including 6 live individuals, 12 skins, 13 skulls, 20 canines and 22 claws.[139]

Human interaction

Cultural significance

Leopard caput to hip ornamentation from the Court of Republic of benin

The leopards has featured in art, mythology and folklore of many countries. In Greek mythology, information technology was a symbol of the god Dionysus, who was depicted wearing leopard skin and using leopards equally means of transportation. In one myth, the god was captured past pirates but ii leopards rescued him.[140] During the Benin Empire, the leopard was commonly represented on engravings and sculptures and was used to symbolise the power of the male monarch or oba, since the leopard was considered the king of the forest.[141] The Ashanti besides used the leopard equally a symbol of leadership, and just the rex was permitted to have a ceremonial leopard stool. Some African cultures considered the leopard to be a smarter, better hunter than the lion and harder to impale.[140]

In Rudyard Kipling'south Just And so Stories How the Leopard Got His Spots, a leopard with no spots in the Loftier Veldt lives with his hunting partner, the Ethiopian. When they set off to the forest, the Ethiopian inverse his brown skin, and the leopard painted spots on his pare.[142] A leopard played an important role in the 1938 Hollywood film Bringing Up Baby. African chiefs, European queens, Hollywood actors and burlesque dancers wore coats made of leopard skins.[140]

The leopard is a often used in heraldry, most commonly as passant.[143] The heraldic leopard lacks spots and sports a mane, making it visually almost identical to the heraldic lion, and the two are often used interchangeably. Naturalistic leopard-like depictions appear on the coat of arms of Benin, Malawi, Somalia, the Congo-kinshasa and Gabon, the last of which uses a black panther.[144]

Creature trainer with leopard

Attacks on people

The Leopard of Rudraprayag killed more 125 people; the Panar Leopard was idea to take killed more than 400 people. Both were shot past Jim Corbett.[145] The spotted devil of Gummalapur killed almost 42 people in Karnataka, Republic of india.[146]

In captivity

The Aboriginal Romans kept leopards in captivity to exist slaughtered in hunts besides as exist used in executions of criminals.[140] In Republic of benin, leopards were kept and paraded as mascots, totems and sacrifices to deities.[141] Several leopards were kept in a menagerie established by King John of England at the Tower of London in the 13th century; around 1235, three of these animals were given to Henry III by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II.[147] In modern times, leopards take been trained and tamed in circuses.[140]

Meet also

  • List of largest cats
  • Leopard pattern
  • Panther (legendary creature)

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Farther reading

  • Schaller, Chiliad. B. (1972). The Serengeti Lion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-73639-6.
  • DeRuiter, D. J.; Berger, L. R. (2000). "Leopards equally Taphonomic Agents in dolomitic Caves—Implications for bone Accumulations in the Hominid-begetting Deposits of South Africa". Journal of Archaeological Science. 27 (eight): 665–684. doi:x.1006/jasc.1999.0470.
  • Allsen, Thomas T. (2007). "Natural History and Cultural History: The Circulation of Hunting Leopards in Eurasia, Seventh-Seventeenth Centuries". In Mair, Victor H. (ed.). Contact and Substitution in the Aboriginal World. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN978-0-8248-2884-iv.
  • Sanei, A. (2007). Analysis of leopard (Panthera pardus) status in Islamic republic of iran (in Persian). Tehran: Sepehr Publication Center. ISBN978-964-6123-74-8.
  • Sanei, A.; Zakaria, M.; Yusof, E.; Roslan, M. (2011). "Estimation of leopard population size in a secondary wood inside Malaysia'southward capital agglomeration using unsupervised nomenclature of pugmarks" (PDF). Tropical Environmental. 52 (i): 209–217.
  • Taylor, P.; Barrientos, S.; Dolan, C. (2005). Beyond Conservation: A Wildland Strategy. Earthscan. ISBN978-one-84407-197-5.
  • Zakaria, M.; Sanei, A. (2011). "Conservation and management prospects of the Persian and Malayan leopards". Asia Life Sciences. Supplement 7: 1–5.

External links

  • IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group: Panthera pardus in Africa and Panthera pardus in Asia
  • "Leopard". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.

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